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Game-based learning shows great potential as a tool for enhancing students’ computational thinking abilities. However, these approaches in K-12 settings frequently emphasize the teaching of specific computing concepts and programming skills. This approach often overlooks the broader goal of developing students’ computational thinking competency—a set of skills that can be applied across various subjects and aligns with curriculum standards. To address this need, the current study investigated how game-based learning influenced middle school students’ learning performance. One hundred sixty-nine students participated in the study, playing the game over a period of 4 weeks. We observed evidence that the gaming experience significantly influenced the development of computational thinking competency, self-efficacy toward computational thinking, and interest in STEM career after gameplay. 

The current in-situ, descriptive case study demonstrated how we involved in-service teachers as informants in designing an educational game to enhance middle school students’ computational thinking through participatory design. Data were collected from eight in-service teachers at middle schools through individual interviews, focus groups, and field notes. The study results indicated that in-service teachers made 82% of contributions to the Learning facet, followed by 14% of the Gameplay facet, at the early stage of conceptualization. Additionally, participants provided insights on intrinsically embedding content in game design processes by offering valuable and relevant pedagogical content knowledge, including knowledge of content and students, knowledge of content and teaching, and knowledge of content and curriculum. 

Spatial reasoning comprises a set of skills used to mentally visualize, orient, and transform objects or spaces. These skills, which develop in humans through interaction with our physical world and direct instruction, are strongly associated with mathematics achievement but are often neglected in early grades mathematics teaching. To conceptualize ways to increase the representation of spatial reasoning skills in the classroom, we examined the outcomes of cognitive interviews with kin- dergarten through grade two students in which they engaged with one spatial reasoning task. Qualitative analyses of students’ work samples and verbal reasoning responses on a single shape de/composition task revealed evidence of a continuum of sophistication in their responses that supports a previously articulated hypothetical learning progression. Results suggest that teachers may be able to efficiently infer students’ skills in spatial reasoning using a single task and use the results to make instructional decisions that would support students’ mathematical development. The practical implications of this work indicate that additional classroom-based research could support the adoption of such practices that could help teachers efficiently teach spatial reasoning skills through mathematics instruction. 

This article illustrates and differentiates the unique role cognitive interviews and think-aloud interviews play in developing and validating assessments. Specifically, we describe the use of (a) cognitive interviews to gather empirical evidence to support claims about the intended construct being measured and (b) think-aloud interviews to gather evidence about the problem-solving processes students use while completing tasks assessing the intended construct. We illustrate their use in the context of a classroom assessment of an early mathematics construct – numeric relational reasoning – for kindergarten through Grade 2 students. This assessment is intended to provide teachers with data to guide their instructional decisions. We conducted 64 cognitive interviews with 32 students to collect evidence about students’ understanding of the construct. We conducted 106 think-aloud interviews with 14 students to understand how the prototypical items elicited the intended construct. The task-based interview results iteratively informed assessment development and contributed important sources of validity evidence. 

Abstract Computational thinking is acknowledged as an essential competency for everyone to learn. However, teachers find it challenging to implement the existing learning approaches in K-12 settings because the existing approaches often focus on teaching computing concepts and skills (i.e., programming skills) rather than on helping students develop their computational thinking competency—a competency that can be used across disciplinary boundaries in accordance with curriculum requirements. To address this need, the current study investigated how game-based learning influenced middle school students’ learning processes, particularly on the development of computational thinking competency, self-efficacy toward computational thinking, and engagement during gameplay. Additionally, the study examined how these outcomes were moderated by individual differences. We observed evidence that the gaming experience influenced students’ computational thinking self-efficacy, but not computational thinking competency or game-based engagement. Compared to age (grade) and prior gaming experience, gender tended to play a more important role in moderating students’ computational thinking competency, self-efficacy toward computational thinking competency, and game-based engagement. Implications and possible directions for future research regarding using game-based learning to enhance computational thinking competency are discussed. 

This study explored how participants practice computational thinking (CT) concepts and skills while playing the game. Regarding 11 learning standards from the Computer Science Teacher Association (CSTA), researchers designed gameplay tasks in Minecraft and a supplemental platform called Minecraft Factory Planner (MFP). Data was collected through the cognitive walkthrough with a think-aloud method and semi-structured retrospective interview. The results showed that different game tasks triggered gameplay actions that allowed the practice of different CT skills. 

The current in-situ, descriptive case study explored in-service teachers’ contributions and perspectives in the participatory design of an educational game for enhancing middle school students’ computational thinking skills. The informant design technique was adopted, involving specific stakeholders at the stage of conceptualization. Data were collected from 8 in-service teachers at 9 middle schools through observation, a series of individual interviews, and focus-group interviews. The study results indicated that in-service teachers made contributions to the content design at the stage of conceptualization. 

The early development of spatial reasoning skills has been linked to future success in mathematics (Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009), but research to date has mainly focused on the development of these skills within classroom settings rather than at home. The home environment is often the first place students are exposed to, and develop, early mathematics skills, including spatial reasoning (Blevins-Knabe, 2016; Hart, Ganley, & Purpura, 2016). The purpose of the current study is to develop a survey instrument to better understand Kindergarten through Grade 2 students’ opportunities to learn spatial reasoning skills at home. Using an argument-based approach to validation (Kane, 2013), we collected multiple sources of validity evidence, including expert review of item wording and content and pilot data from 201 parent respondents. This manuscript outlines the interpretation/use argument that guides our validation study and presents evidence collected to evaluate the scoring inferences for using the survey to measure students’ opportunities to learn spatial reasoning skills at home. 

Cognitive interviews play an important role in articulating the intended construct of educational assessments. This paper describes the iterative development of protocols for cognitive interviews with kindergarten through second-grade children to understand how their spatial reasoning skill development aligns with intended constructs. We describe the procedures used to gather evidence of construct relevance and improved alignment to task-based interview items through multiple pilot rounds before conducting cognitive interviews. We found improved alignment and reduced construct irrelevant variance after protocol revisions.